Totems

The topic of totems is an interesting indicator of the social structures that African civilisations developed to ensure social cohesion, safe reproduction practices, wildlife conservation and honour of their spiritual essence. The term totem originates from Ojibwa, an Algonquian language spoken by American Indian people from the regions around Lake Superior and it refers to an emblematic depiction of an animal or plant that gives a family or clan its name and that often serves as a reminder of its ancestry. A totem is typically associated with deep spiritual values. It is an animal embodiment of the spirits that keep a community safe, a representation of the values that the community aspires to live by or even the species that played a role in founding that community.

In Africa totems were introduced to symbolize and make manifest the close relationship between humans, animals and the environment. Additionally, totem use established kinship with anyone in the region, which historically helped travellers or strangers to find relatives and social support. Furthermore, since people of the same clan are descendants of one common ancestor, people of the same totem see each other as relatives even though they may not be blood related. This is because kinship is either in the bloodline or in the totem.

Although totems come in all forms and sizes, there is, across Africa, a preponderance of totems that embody bravery, wisdom and mystery or physical strength. The python is revered in many societies because it is believed to possess wisdom, strength, mystery and patience. Quite literally hundreds of different communities on the African continent have a python totem. You see this in some Dogon Masks, the python temple in Ouidah (Benin), the two-headed snake of the Bamum or python’s trail of the Kom (Cameroon), the python’s of the Yoruba Oshogbo palace, the python worship of the Igbo (Nigeria), San (Southern Africa) or Sirigu (Ghana), and so on. Monkeys, tortoises and spiders are also quite common. The link here is wisdom, and that comes out in many folk tales that feature monkeys, tortoises and spiders dispensing knowledge or encouraging patience and temperance. Elsewhere, the elephant totem reminds people of their power (Zulu Ndlovu clan for example) and the lion is revered for its protective energy (the Nuer of South Sudan and the Shumba clan of Zimbabwe).

Generally, in Africa chiefs decorated their stools and other court items with their totems or the main totem that made up the larger clan community. It was seen as the community’s duty to defend and protect the totem. The community would refrain from actively harming the animal or plant and would instead actively feed it, rescue and care for it when needed. There are even tales of men who were considered heroes because they rescued an animal or plant of their totem.

Totem use also appears to have been a universal phenomenon among early societies because the Roman empire had symbols that were used as coats of arms and this is a practice that is still in effect. Pre-industrial societies had a form of totem that was associated with spirits, religion and the success of community members. In the modern world, wildlife conservation places like the Uganda Wildlife Education Centre use totems to encourage individuals to donate funds for feeding animals in the former zoo. They allocate a donation to the donor’s totem because this is considered to be an act of feeding your brother or sister who is unable to feed themselves. This revitalises environmental awareness and prompts people to protect animal rights using cultural significance of totems.

Totems exist in the different language groups within African countries such as the Zulu and the Ndebele in South Africa, the Herero in Botswana and Namibia, the Shona in Zimbabwe and the Ashanti in Ghana. However, this essay focuses on the use of terms within the Shona language group and briefly mentions the use of totems all over the world.

The MaShona language group in Zimbabwe refer to totems as Mitupo which is plural for mutupo. Mutupo is an animal or an animal’s body parts or organs believed to be sacred to the clan and as such it is seen as taboo to kill, eat the flesh or wear the hide of the animal believed to be your mutupo.

Mitupo were used to provide social identification of the different clans that made up the ancient MaShona civilisation dynasties. They were and are still used to guard against incestuous behaviours because those who share the same totem are considered relatives and as such are prohibited from marrying each other. Furthermore, they are still used during detembo which is the praising of someone in recited poetry, and during a funeral to decide who would initiate the burial of the deceased because it is taboo for a person of a different totem to do that as this a crime worth of a substantial fine to the deceased’s family.

There are currently 25 identifiable mitupo in the MaShona language group and to name a few: soko, moyo, shava, ngara, gumbo, gwayi, mbizi, nzou, shumba, bonga, nyati, shato mheta, garwe, mbeva, mbano, nguruve/humba, shiri, mvuu. tsiwo. In English translation these are: monkey, heart, eland, porcupine, leg, crocodile, sheep, zebra, elephant, lion, wildcat, buffalo, python, crocodile, mouse/rodent, warthog, bird, hippo and female birth canal.

Furthermore, most mitupo are linked to a number of zvidawo which indicates the existence of sub-clans within a clan. A sub-clan is identified by chidawo (singular) or zvidawo (plural), and a mutupo could be linked to more than one chidawo. For example: shava is divided into shava museyamwa, shava mufakose, shava mutenhesanwa, etc.

A noteworthy fact is that mitupo is linked to one’s patrilineal family which means as one would traditionally get their father’s surname in Western culture, the same applies to mitupo. The Shona language group are traditionally a patrilineal society and as such consider children as solely belonging to their father’s side of the family. Totems are also essential to cast a curse as it is believed that one can only harm their own blood-relative or totem-relative.

Mitupo are incredibly significant in Zimbabwe and this is evident when you are in the country because they are often depicted in the sculptures seen around the country of Zimbabwe. There are schools like Mhofu Primary School who are named after totems and zvidawo.

For another interesting perspective on totems, I would recommend looking up “Disowning My Mutupo” professional solo exhibition by Tandazani Dhlakama on https://www.herald.co.zw/disowning-my-totem/.

Praise singing

When poets and praise singers celebrate people who have achieved great things in a family and society, or when appear at weddings or other functions, they typically celebrate the guest of honour by singing their totem and clan name rather than their personal names. We can see this in Amadou Kourouma’s Le Soleil des Independances for example. In South Africa, we see this also at the opening of parliament and other important function where the head of state is welcomed by a praise singer.

The Shona of Zimbabwe have a great tradition of poetry that celebrates different clans and their totems. Take this one for example:

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Maita Murambwi
Maita Shumba
Matikaha
Kuona chiso.
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Hekani Chibwa, Mushereketi,
Vadzimba vedu, variritiri,
Mutsikapanyoro vana vaChibi,
Vakanyairi, vadyi vemhuka,
Maita Shumba yangu yiyi
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Hekani Bumhi rangu riri,
Maita vaMhari, Chipamutoro,
Vari Nyaningwe,
Vari Chamhota,
Maita Shumba.
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Mukweverakwasviba,
Asingadyi chokupamba,
Maita vaMhungudza,
Vari Baradzanwa,
Zvaonekwa vaMhari.
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Zvaitwa vari Chitonje,
Vanomuka ngwe namasikati.
Zvaitwa Matikaha nokuone gumbo,
Kuone mumhu vanovhunduka.
Maita varere Baradzanwa.
Kwaka paradzanwa baba afa.
Hekani Mhungubwe yangu yiyi!
Zvaitwa mwana waChibi!
Aiawa zvaonekwa
Mhungubwe.
VaNyamukanga, Makovere.
Zvaitwa muNyaningwe, Chibwa!

The translation:

Thank you, The Rejected One
Thank you, the Lion
The causer of sudden surprise
When we see your face

Well done Chibwa, the performer of wonders
Our successful hunters, the providers,
The one who walks gently, being one of Chibi’ sons
The ones who swagger, the eaters of venison
Thank you my lion, this very one.

Thank you very much my dog of the wild, this very one
Thank you the Mharis, the rainmakers
Those who lie buried in Nyaningwe
Those who lie buried in Chamhota
Thank you Lion

The one who drags at nightfall
The one who does not subsist on plunder
Thank you, the children of Mhungudza
The ones who lie buried at the Junction
Your good deeds have been witnessed by all,
You, the Mharis

Your good deeds have been performed, you who are at Chitonje
Those who turn into leopards even in broad daylight
They have been performed, the causer of surprise when they see your spoor.
At the sight of your physique, they panic
Thank you, who lie buried at the Junction
Where the clan parted after the father died.
Thank you very much, my black-backed jackal this one
Your good deeds have been performed, son of Chibi
We can’t ask for more, black-backed jackal
The children of Nyamukanga, Makovere
They have been performed, you son of the Nyaningwe, Chibwa!

From The Oral Traditions of the Shona People of Zimbabwe, Alec Pongweni,

Here is a second one below, Gushungo detembo. An audio of this can be found at https://youtu.be/B2HmiY_Q3-I?si=6uLtjNdtCZu45sW2

Maita Gushungo, VokwaNzungunhokotoko, Muchero waNegondo,
Maita Tsiwo,
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Usavi hwavamwe varume, Vambwerambwetete,
Kugara pasi kusimuka zvinohwira vhu,
Musati hutukwa, Mutupo ndowenyu. Tatenda varidzi venyika, Vakabva Guruuswa, Varidzi vamazhanje.
Maita vokwaZvimba, Vazere muChakona,
Vene vamachiri namakute,
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Vano kutizira kunenge kudyara nzungu, Vakapangura nyika ino,
Ichakatsitswa nezamu, Vomutupo weGushungo, Vari Chipata naMaringohwe. Aiwa mwana waZvimba, Zvaitwa vaNgonya

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